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shaping sand and clay around a metal rod, then applying molten glass over the core before removing it to create a hollow container. The Romans later revolutionized glass production around 100 BC by inventing glassblowing, a technique that allowed for faster and more diverse production. This innovation spread throughout the Roman Empire and eventually across Europe and Asia, making glass more accessible to ordinary people for the first time. B During the Middle Ages, glassmaking flourished in Europe, particularly in Venice, which became the center of glass manufacturing. Venetian glassmakers developed cristallo, a clear glass that resembled rock crystal, and created intricate designs that were highly sought after by royalty and nobility across the continent. The guilds of Venice strictly controlled glassmaking techniques, and glassmakers were forbidden from leaving the city in order to protect trade secrets. Despite these restrictions, knowledge of glassmaking eventually spread to other parts of Europe, leading to the establishment of glass factories in Germany, France, and England. By the 17th century, lead crystal had been developed in England, which had a higher refractive index and produced a brilliant sparkle that made…